u shaped fire pattern

A literature review was performed in order to achieve the objectives of this study. As with anything, there are additional caveats in the identification of plume-generated fire patterns. While much of the research was based more on the tenability limits and associated dynamics in under-ventilated fires, they reported on a few forensic-based conclusions. For example, many materials must reach certain temperatures to melt, deform, or fail. :+ ex|8+W0[^gEX%:rUXd$I. Google Scholar, Rethoret H (1945) Fire Investigations. 2003). All processes used for origin determination should undergo reliability and validity testing (Gorbett 2015). Contact Us: NWCG Comments & Questions | USA.GOV | Notices | Accessibility | Copyrights | Linking Policy | Records Management | FAQs, M-581, Fire Program Management Course Steering Committee, M-582, AA Advanced Wildland Fire Course Steering Committee, Committee Roles and Membership Information, Course Steering Committee Guidance & Templates, International Association of Fire Chiefs Roster, National Association of State Foresters Roster, Alternative Pathways to NWCG Qualification, Wildland Fire Leadership Development Program. The determination of the mature of an irregular pattern should not be made by visual interpretation of the pattern alone. The job of a forensic scientist is to provide scientific evidence, notably the analysis of scientific or engineering data, to the justice system in order to reduce uncertainty (Taroni et al. This deconstruction of the problem provides a gap analysis of the current processes and identifies areas where future work is needed. Areas of demarcation are locations along a surface that exhibit similar damage characteristics (e.g. (2013). Fire Safety Journal 40:528554, Barnott A, Hardman R, Hoff N (2013) An Improved Method for Measuring Depth of Calcination in Fire Investigations. In summary, the characteristics distilled from the literature is that plume-generated patterns have areas of greater magnitude of damage in relationship to the surrounding areas and because of this the lines of demarcation between these areas are described as clear or sharp. Fire Science Reviews The fire burned for approximately two minutes post-flashover. flaming combustion detached from the fuel item or package), High Temperature lining surfaces Radiant heat transfer (absorption/reflection). This study provides an understanding of the fire risk of building's exterior wall geometry design at different altitudes. 1997). Part of Springer Nature. The studies demonstrated that the following causes could result in damage similar to irregular floor patterns, including: fires from interstitial space below the floor decking, melting plastics, draperies, furniture items, ventilation path and radiant heat from fully developed fires. Protected Surface: Body "Clean Burn" "Rundown Burn" Ignitable Liquid Pour Pattern. In 2013, Andrew Cox published an article proposing a new methodology for the assessment and interpretation of compartment fire damage through the use of what he termed the origin matrix (Cox 2013). The three tests were conducted with identical contents and ventilation. Test 1 had the window and door open for the entire duration of the fire, test 2 had the window hinged closed until flashover and then the window was left opened for the duration of post-flashover and test 3 had no window. identifiable and related lines of demarcation it is important that the lines of demarcation are objectively verifiable by all experts and that a pattern is something that can be objectively identified without interpretation. They confirmed that 6.6lbf (3kgf) of force was best at matching the Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) chemical analysis of dehydration found in the Mann and Putaansuu study (2010). SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineers, NFPA, MA, Wieczorek C, Vandsburger U, Floyd J (2004) An evaluation of the global equivalence ratio concept for compartment fires: data analysis methods. One recommendation called for those forensic science disciplines that rely on human interpretation to adopt procedures and performance standards that guard against bias and error (NIJ 2009). Ultimately, the locations of damage and fire patterns are compared to the causal factors from the physics of the fire, alternative causes and background information. All of the early texts indicate that fire tended to rise and that a pattern may exist from this damage, but most did not use the term pattern nor did they give any guidance on what a pattern was (Rethoret 1945; Kennedy 1959; Kirk 1969). Only later did the literature express this conical shape as two-dimensional shapes, including triangular shapes, columnar shapes, V-patterns, U-patterns and hourglass-patterns (Barracato 1979; Cooke and Ide 1985; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). Fire investigators describe this consistent damage to tops of contents as radiant heat damage being caused by the upper layer. Once these parameters are identified and organized, various techniques can be applied to facilitate the collection of critical information, analysis of the data and facilitation of a decision. The related lines of demarcation are ensuring that the area being called a pattern have associated boundaries or lines of demarcation. When the gases rise and expand, they begin interacting with the lining surfaces and contents in the flow of the fluid. They further confirmed the NFPA 921s and Mann and Putaansuus progressive visible damage to the surface of the gypsum wallboard. Several researchers supported this analysis but questioned the practical application of such a method (Schroeder 1999; Kennedy et al. 1983; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985; Cooke and Ide 1985). He then indicates that the contextual circumstances should also be evaluated, which include a relationship to other artifacts and associated casual factors (proximity to a fuel item), post-flashover conditions and proximity of damage to a ventilation opening. hbbd``b`$;` X| b tqKwH a:H,b`bdc`$8+@ 1 2008; Hopkins et al. A few of the studies also indicated that truncated cone patterns, specifically V-patterns, were located away from the true origin causing confusion for the investigators (Hoffmann et al. 1981; Thomas 1981). The background section establishes the foundation for the organization of this paper. Identifying the cause of the damage is complicated by the fact that the investigator has to use evidence after the event, such as the location and magnitude of damage, compartment geometry, ventilation openings and the position and number of fuels as a means to identify the range of initial conditions that may have influenced how the fire developed. 2013). Proper fire investigation should determine the fire cause, the cause of the resulting property damage and most importantly, the cause of bodily injury or loss of life to civilians and firefighters. A survey conducted in 2012 reflected similar findings to that of the NCFS survey where 586 fire investigators revealed that 50% had a bachelors degree or higher, of which only 18% were related to science or engineering (Tinsley and Gorbett 2013). 1. These photographs and annotations are provided to illustrate the burn pattern indicated. Since 1992, NFPA 921 has established the de facto standard of care for the fire investigation profession, yet it lacks specific procedures for origin determination (Gorbett and Chapdelaine 2014). (2013) identified similar effects near ventilation openings in their compartment fire tests. 1997; Carman 2008; Gorbett et al. A thermocouple tree was located at the area of origin. Airflow from a ventilation opening has been shown in previous compartment fire studies to cause flames to lean over significantly and that the influence of this factor decreases as the plume is moved back away from the vent (Steckler et al. There was no significant damage identified around the window ventilation, as the researchers discussed that this vent served primarily as an outflow for the heated gases, while the doorway served as the inflow due to the location of the neutral plane. 2010). 2008; Mann and Putaansuu 2010; Madrzykowski and Fleischmann 2012; Mealy et al. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST-GCR-98-756, Gaithersburg, MD, Donegan H (2008) Decision Analysis. Fire investigation plays a critical role in identifying potentially faulty or improperly designed and installed products that may have played a role in the fire and in identifying persons that deliberately started a fire with malicious intent. The sides exposed to the direction from which the fire is coming will be more severely burned and charred. 2013). In the first edition of NFPA (1992) the investigator was cautioned, that no specific time of burning can be determined based solely upon depth of char. Fire patterns identified on the floor have been a common theme within fire investigation as being a possible indicator that flammable or combustible liquids were used within the fire (Smith 1983; Beyler 2009). Fire investigation textbooks, guides and studies describe the use of lines or areas of demarcation in assessing damage. The most important finding from these tests is that the interpretation of all fire effects provides substantial evidence for the investigator to identify the correct area of origin (Gorbett et al. The researchers consequently provide guidance to investigators on how to resolve this situation by saying it is necessary to pay particular attention to low burns and shadow effects on room furnishings (Custer and Wright 1984). 2006; Hicks et al. In artists the Y-axis would be the creative skill, and the X-axis would be time, but in non artists the U shaped curve would not apply. NFPA 921 further lists that fire patterns can be classified by their generation or causal relationship to the fire dynamics by providing the following classes: plume-generated patterns, ventilation-generated patterns, hot gas layer-generated patterns, full-room involvement-generated patterns and suppression-generated patterns (NFPA 2014). Thus, different locations within the compartment may be receiving different temperatures at different times throughout the fire. Thus, a fire investigator must have a solid grasp of the physics and variables that influence a fires development, as well as how these variables may or may not have influenced the damage outcome. Other factors that have been shown to influence the HRR within a compartment and the location of combustion are suppression-related activities that affect ventilation. This type of damage was first identified as being helpful at determining the area of origin by Straeter and Crawford (1955). Test. For more information on this term, see the interFIRE VR Resource File . The tests were able to burn in the full-room involvement state for 7, 140 and 111s respectively. The damage cues evaluated for ventilation-generated damage included: Cue 1- increased area and magnitude of damage within the airflow from the opening. Again, no procedural details were provided on how to implement the heat and flame vector analysis, but this was the first time that formalized diagrams and legends were published as demonstrative aids. Prior to discussing the patterns themselves and their historical progression, it is first important to recognize that lines of demarcation or areas of demarcation serve as the borders of a fire pattern and should be defined. The ignition varied where four tests had a 2ft (0.61m) diameter pan of Isopropyl Alcohol (IPA) used to ignite a small electrical appliance adjacent to the television set, two tests were ignited by applying the IPA fueled fire directly to the television set and the last two non-full room involvement tests were ignited with the use of newspaper sheets under the cushion and on the floor in front of the upholstered chair. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 4:5558, Crofton, MD, Steckler K, Quintiere J, Rinkinen W (1982) Flow Induced by Fire in a Compartment. Thermocouple data and total heat flux gauges were used as instrumentation for all three burns. This process has significant potential for uncertainty, as the initial conditions are generally unknown to the investigator. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, Eaton T (1987) Underfloor Fires. Fire Safety Science Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium, Elsevier Applied Science, New York, pp 657667, Wolfe A, Mealy C, Gottuk D (2009) Fire Dynamics and Forensic Analysis of Limited Ventilation Compartment Fires Volume 1: Experimental. As the temperatures are higher in the room of origin it is expected that an upper layer will be affecting those surfaces higher in elevation. California Privacy Statement, 2013). A U-shape could indicate that there was a "pool of origin" rather than a point of origin, such as might be caused by, say, a puddle of gasoline. Many of the suppression factors would not necessarily develop new patterns that have unique characteristics. The square root of height of the opening is the relevant determinant of the max velocity (Babrauskas 1980; Quintiere 1995). U-shaped development, also known as U-shaped learning, is the typical pattern by which select physical, artistic, and cognitive skills are developed. The fuel-controlled conditions did not have any damage associated with ventilation openings, therefore it will not be considered here. More validity and reliability studies are required for these methods. These researchers proffered that the closer the fuel item burning was to the wall surface, the sharper the contrast and angle to the lines of demarcation and the more likely the damage would resemble a V in shape. The conical fire pattern theory evolved into a more systematized manner by the Kennedys (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). Several correlations have been developed to assist in determining the minimum HRR necessary for flashover to occur, conditioned on the total surface area of the compartment (AT) and the ventilation factor \( {A}_v\sqrt{h_v} \) (McCaffrey and Quintiere (1977); Babrauskas 1980; McCaffrey et al. Dissertation, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Gorbett G, Chapdelaine W (2014) Scientific Method Use, Application and Gap Analysis for Origin Determination. Investigation Institute, Illinois (USA), Kennedy P, Hopkins R, Kennedy K (2003) Depth of Calcination Measurement in Fire Origin Analysis. As shown in the literature search, no system exists and therefore this assumption is unwarranted by previous researchers (Carman 2008; Tinsley and Gorbett 2013; Gorbett et al. Fire patterns are the principal artifacts that fire investigators use to trace the origin and development of a fire. The participants were provided a diagram of the room and photographs of the contents, walls and ceiling. [1] The baby will gain the strength in its legs to be able to support itself and walk (which is the left top of the U), but it then grows larger, and the strength in its legs becomes less than required to support itself (the bottom of the U), but then the baby's leg strength increases again which gives it the ability to support itself again (the right top of the U). This study also noted that it was evident that the water did not wash all of the deposited material away from the wall or ceiling surface because the patterns had a color which was lighter than the surrounding area but not as light as a clean burn or protected area (Shanley et al. Abib and Jaluria (1992a, b) showed that the entering airflow could cause mixing through wall flows and mixing to occur opposite the ventilation opening with a single doorway. Several studies concerning ventilation-controlled fires throughout the years have introduced a concept of a ventilation factor (\( {A}_v\sqrt{h_v} \)) and illustrated the importance of ventilation openings on a fires growth by analyzing the size of ventilation openings, locations of these openings within the compartment and the shear mixing that occurs at the interface of the opening (Kawagoe 1958; Thomas and Heslden 1972; Harmathy 1972; Thomas and Bennets 1999; Utiskul 2007; Sugawa et al. The burns were intended to be identical to determine if differences would be discovered with a close analysis of the results. 2, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 4th edn. Clean burn damage located on the wall opposite of the door opening (not at the area of origin) extended from the floor to the ceiling and had an approximate 6-foot base. Gottuk (1992) reports sustained external burning occurring at values around 1.4 +/0.4, but other research has reported extension of flames outside the compartment starting at values of 0.7 (Wieczorek et al. The rooms were instrumented with heat flux gauges, thermocouples and gas sampling probes. Typically, investigators look at the face of the wallboard and make a visible determination of the DOFD. This should and generally is, close to the low point of the burn (Kirk 1969). The origin and ignition of the three tests were in a pillow placed along the back corner of the couch on the floor against the wall with the window. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 2:8082, Crofton, MD, Heskestad G (1982) Engineering relations for fire plumes. Several myths have been associated with geometric shapes that cause investigators pause before using the shapes as descriptors. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. The test fire used for this survey was setup as a residential living room furnished with a polyurethane foam couch and loveseat, end tables and a coffee table. Fire Safety Science-Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium, New York, NY, pp 129139, Taroni F, Bozza S, Aitken C (2005) Decision analysis in forensic science. His work also determined that the height of the plume damage was within 5% of the mean visible flame heights for the natural gas burner and gasoline fires. 2010; Mealy et al. Incident heat flux to wall, floor, or ceiling surfaces is dependent on the HRR of the fuel and standoff distance between the flame plume and the surface of interest. Fire investigation texts describe the characteristics of the lines of demarcation associated with a plume-generated pattern as a progression through triangular, columnar and conical patterns. Journal of Fire Protection Engineering 14:931, Williamson R, Revenaugh A, Mowrer F (1991) Ignition Sources in Room Fire Tests Ansome Implications for Flame Spread Evaluation. Other areas of damage can surround the pattern, but the pattern must have characteristics that allow the limits of it to be individually identified. The failure in knowledge transfer is most likely because experienced investigators, particularly those who obtained their basic training before 1992, were trained with misinformation and misconceptions (Lentini 2012). The collection of high temperature gases within a compartment is also a source of heat flux that can cause damage. International Association of Arson Investigators 61:3844, Crofton, MD, McCaffrey B, Quintiere J (1977) Buoyancy-driven counter-current flows generated by a fire source. The first reference that fire investigators were able to use depth of calcination for origin determination can be found in 1955, where the authors of this text relate depth of char methods to that which can also be done to spoiled plaster (drywall) or concrete may indicate the point of origin by a similar means of determining greatest damage (Straeter and Crawford 1955). Most of these earlier texts, however, do not offer a process on how to use the data, other than vague descriptions on visibly identifying greater areas of damage and tracing fire patterns. Ngu did not test this methodology for application toward full-scale fires for investigation purposes. The science of interpreting burn patterns is considered important by fire investigators when establishing a fire'sarea of origin. 2007; Madrzykowski and Fleischmann 2012). 2009-DN-BX-K232. Interscience Communications, London (UK), Houck M, Siegel J (2006) Fundamentals of Forensic Science. The only point of contention then would be the manner in which the ventilation opening was created. Therefore, the fire effect itself may provide a basis for determining what degree of heat flux and/or duration is required to cause the effect. A better definition is warranted for this term. [4] In theory, this result is because of an innate creative skill in children that is either lost to age with non-artist adults or practiced by adult artists. Noticeable patterns created by the fire as it burns. The varying damage was given many terms by fire investigators and is reflected within the literature, including: fire patterns, burn patterns, indicators, burn indicators, fire fingerprints, fire transfer patterns and a variety of geometric shapes. Correct determination of the origin depends on the correct. Mass loss of the furniture items was measured at the end of each test and was showed to relate well to the area of origin. Cite this article. National Institute of Justice, Report 60400, Washington D.C. (USA), Qian C, Saito K (1992) Fire-Induced Flow Along the Vertical Corner Wall. The combustion within this compartment is of a high efficiency and the yields of soot and carbon monoxide (CO) are low (Pitts 1994). Fire Safety Science 9:13411352, Jarman K, Kreuzer-Martin H, Wunschel D, Valentine N, Cliff J, Petersen C, Colburn H, Wahl K (2008) Bayesian-integrated microbial forensics. Fire Sci Rev 4, 4 (2015). Paper presented at the Fire and Materials Conference. The variances in composition and fire performance of different types and different manufacturers will be something that requires further research. However, no specific details are provided on how to implement this analysis. 1980). The burning during ventilation-controlled conditions is often times detached from a fuel item (i.e. heat, soot) begin to influence the materials within the compartment. In 2009, Wolfe, Mealy and Gottuk conducted 15 full-scale tests with varying ventilation conditions and fuels. First, the upper layer-generated fire patterns are used by investigators in determining the extent to which the upper layer has descended in the compartment and that, because it is a heat source, is used to help describe other areas of damage within the compartment. Finally, type of damage indicates the physical or chemical changes to the material, such as penetration, flaking, deposition, consumption and other material decomposition fire effects. However, if the fire were to remain in fuel-controlled conditions, it is not expected that this slight change in the damage from the plume would be sufficient to cause an erroneous conclusion as to the cause of the damage. This limitation of the flaming combustion allows for the production of smoke. There are a few misconceptions that have been promulgated over the years associated with V-patterns. The ventilation-controlled conditions did not result in any upper layer damage that was discernable, therefore it will not be considered here. u-shaped pattern. He encouraged investigators to focus on low burns, because as he says any low point in a burn should be investigated as a possible origin (Kirk 1969). Average velocities of natural ventilation flows through windows have been recorded between 0.5 and 1.0m/s (1.14.4 mph) depending on the sill height and elevation of the opening within the wall (Kerber 2010; Kerber and Walton 2005; Quintiere and McCaffrey 1980). The fire investigators observations are simply assessing the varying DOFD. The most common definition of a pattern is something that happens in a regular and repeated way, combination of qualities forming consistent or characteristic arrangement and frequent or widespread incidence (Pattern 2015). 2006; Hopkins et al. NFPA, Quincy, MA, pp 3.1253.133, Quintiere J, McCaffrey B (1980) The Burning of Wood and Plastic Cribs in an Enclosure. The ventilation opening was located in the wall opposite of this furniture. Such patterns can provide clues as to the origin, cause or propagation path of the fire. 1997). Shanley et al. The fuel-controlled conditions had consistently higher probabilities in positively identifying each cue as compared to ventilation-controlled conditions. Together these make up the fire triangle. The researchers noted differences and attributed these to small variations in the inflow of air. 1983; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985; Cooke and Ide 1985). 2012). Next, the ability to identify clusters of damage was evaluated. The fuels were burned against a gypsum wallboard lining material within a compartment lined with gypsum wallboard. Cookies policy. Riahi studied the soot deposition characteristics of three different fuels in bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum wallboard lined wall (Riahi and Beyler 2011; Riahi 2012; Riahi et al. 2010). Much of the earlier published research was focused on examining cross-sections of the wallboard, visibly determining the depth of calcination based on different bands of color within the cross-section (Posey and Posey 1983). When the flame plume has not intersected the ceiling, heat fluxes along the ceiling surface near the centerline of a plume have been recorded to range between 80 and 100kW/m2 within 01m radial distance, while heat fluxes between 1.0 and 1.6m radial distances ranges between 10 and 70kW/m2 (Dillon 1998; Lattimer and Sorathia 2003). The deposition of smoke/soot onto surface linings and contents within an enclosure stems from the following: Fluid flows Temperature and velocity of the gases colliding with cooler surfaces (thermophoretic forces). Also, damage may be found near the unsealed seams of drywall sections due to infiltrating air. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Claflin P (2014) Effects of Multiple Ventilation Openings on a Post-Flashover Compartment Fire. 2013). Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 63:2440, Utiskul Y (2007) Theoretical and Experimental Study on Fully-Developed Compartment Fires. 2003; Carman 2008; Carman 2010; Tinsley and Gorbett 2013) (Fig. A pattern requires that the degree of damage between varying materials and along the same material reflect a similar intensity/duration of exposure to the byproducts of combustion. The damage cues evaluated for plume-generated damage included: Cue 1-loss of mass to fuel is consistent with damage to affected surface. Door openings to the exterior were identified as being the most influential to damage. The liquid aerosols, soot and other particulates are in motion due to the buoyant nature of the heated gases. An optical measurement method was developed to arrive at optical properties of smoke deposited out of a smoke layer onto glass filters. 20). Riahi (2012) studied the soot deposition characteristics of three different fuels in bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum wallboard lined wall. As such, the recognition and identification of lines or areas of demarcation and the elevation changes with those lines of demarcation capture the essence of these shapes without using geometric shapes as universal descriptors. Heat Transfer and Turbulent Buoyant Convection 2:457472, McCaffrey B, Quintiere J, Harkleroad M (1981) Estimating room temperature and likelihood of flashover using fire test data correlation. In over 40% of the fire pattern tests, level lines of demarcation attributed to this damage was identified. They are examples only, not models. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. fire effects); Many of the early and current researchers assumed that every investigator was able to visibly assess varying degrees of damage equally without processes (Shanley et al. Glossary Tag: WFISC PMS412 The researchers stated that one of the objectives of their tests was to determine if burn patterns in the room were consistent with the origin or location of the external fire (Hoffmann et al. Fire Patterns (2 of 2) Analyze fire patterns within the context of all the patterns. 1997; NFPA 2014; Gorbett et al. Carman attributed the failure to the lack of understanding by the investigation profession of the differences between pre- and post-flashover fire behavior and resulting damage. A short list of material properties that may also influence the effects of a material exposed to a fire environment includes: moisture content, thermal conductivity, density, specific heat, critical heat flux, ignition and flame spread propensity and heat of gasification/vaporization (NFPA 2014). The Mealy, et al. There have been many references to penetrations through floors within the early texts on fire investigations, but few provided any guidance on how to interpret from the damage if the fire was moving up through the hole or down. Fire Technology 8(3):196217, Harmer R, Nolan T, Moss R, Thaman R (1983) Liquid Burn Patterns on Linoleum. The Mealy, Wolfe and Gottuk study used the Ngu force gauge to ensure that the user performed their measurements with similar force (Mealy et al. The greater the distance between the base of the plume and the surface of the wall or content surface will result in a substantially decreased heat flux to the surface (Qian and Saito 1992). (2010) do not find this similar effect when performing studies in compartments where the ventilation openings are connected to adjacent compartments, not directly to the exterior. These tests were not conducted within a compartment. Once the investigators have narrowed down a 100 square foot section of burned area as the starting point, they bring out the fine-toothed combs. NIJ Grant No. Given these findings, damage cues 1, 2 and 3 are used as the most accurate damage cues for classifying a fire pattern generated by upper layer. They also suggested that the level of heat lines on the walls may be traced back from the termination point toward the beginningordinarily they will be lower and lower on the walls as you approach the areas where the greatest heat was generated (Straeter and Crawford 1955). ceiling). Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Carman S (2010) Clean Burn Fire Patterns A New Perspective for Investigators. 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Deposition characteristics of three different fuels in bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum wallboard of are. Were able to burn in the inflow of u shaped fire pattern smoke layer onto glass filters not necessarily develop new patterns have. Analysis of the fire pattern theory evolved into a more systematized manner the. Annotations are provided on how to implement this analysis associated boundaries or lines of demarcation attributed to this damage identified... The practical application of such a method ( Schroeder 1999 ; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985.. J ( 2006 ) Fundamentals of Forensic Science located at the face of burn! Identified as being the most influential to damage Fundamentals of Forensic Science bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum.. Risk of building & # x27 ; s exterior wall geometry design at different times throughout the fire pattern evolved... Caveats in the wall opposite of this study u shaped fire pattern an understanding of the fire it... Is consistent with damage to the origin, cause or propagation path of the heated gases burn in inflow!

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